Historical | The Partition of India: The Division That Continues to Divide and the Wound That Time Couldn't Close

Written by Asil Kutty

In 1947, freedom came, but it came draped in fire and stained with blood as millions were driven from their homes. Many never reached the other side alive. The Partition of British India is estimated to have displaced anywhere between 10 million (Bandyopadhyay, 2017) and 20 million (Partition Museum, n.d). It resulted in the killings of as many as 2 million individuals (Encyclopedia Britannica, n.d.), with massacred villages and trains filled with corpses. Waves of violence followed tides of change. The Partition was not merely a line drawn on a map, but a wound carved into the land and its people. With the birth of two nations came the unravelling of communities as neighbours became enemies. It continues to influence the geopolitics of South Asia and still haunts the minds of the older generations of the South Asian diaspora. This article explores the causes, impacts, and relevance of this event, more than 75 years on.

Historical Context - Pre-Islamic Rule

South Asia’s rich heritage began with the Indus Valley Civilisation, one of the world’s earliest, featuring major cities like Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro along the Indus River (Encyclopedia Britannica, n.d.). The Vedic period followed, spanning 1500 to 600 BCE. It is known mainly for the configuration of the Vedas, made up of the Early (1500 to 1000 BCE) and Later (1000 to 600 BCE) Vedic periods (Vajiram & Ravi, 2025). Around the 6th century BCE, the rise of the sixteen Mahajanapadas marked a transition to organized states with armies, spanning from modern-day Afghanistan to the Godavari River, and saw the emergence of Buddhism and Jainism (Vajiram & Ravi, 2025). The Maurya Empire (321-185 BCE), founded by Chandragupta Maurya after Alexander the Great’s invasion, became the first empire to unify most of the Indian subcontinent, with major expansions under Bindasura and Ashoka who famously adopted Buddhism after conquering Kalinga (Encyclopedia Britannica, n.d.). The Gupta dynasty (320-550 CE), originating in present-day Bihar, marked a Golden Age in Indian culture with major advancements in arts, science, literature, and philosophy. Its decline was driven by invasions from the Huns, along with internal political, economic, and religious challenges (Testbook, n.d.).

Historical Context - Islamic Rule

The pivotal event upending the Indian subcontinent for centuries was the Arab invasion of Sindh in 711 CE. The invasion was led by the Umayyad Caliphate after failed diplomatic appeals to Raja Dahir, resulting in the capture of key cities and the establishment of Sindh as the first Islamic province in the Indian subcontinent. This marked the beginning of Muslim rule, introducing Islamic governance, religious tolerance under a jizya tax system, and fostering cultural and economic exchange between India, the Middle East, and Central Asia (Studentsfree, 2024).

The Beginning of Expansion

Following the Ghurid invasion in 1192 and the defeat of Prithviraj Chauhan, Qutb-ud-din Aibak established the Delhi Sultanate in 1206, founding the Mamluk (Ilbari) dynasty. Over the following centuries, successive dynasties such as the Khalji, Tughlaq, Sayyid and Lodi, ruled the region, implementing key policies such as differential taxation under Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq (lower for Muslims, higher for Hindus) and Sikandar Lodi’s ban on non-Persian languages in government. The era ended when Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi in 1526, marking the rise of the Mughal Empire (99notes, 2023).

The Mughal Dynasty

The Mughal dynasty was a Muslim dynasty of Turkic-Mongol origin which ruled mainly northern India from 1526 to 1857. Founded by Babur, the dynasty implemented significant political policies, including Akbar’s abolition of the jizya (tax on non-Muslims), his promotion of Hindu participation in government, and his ban on forced religious conversions. Later Shah Jahan shifted the capital to Delhi (Shahjahanabad), and the empire began to decline after Aurangzeb’s reign, with the British East India Company taking Delhi in 1803 and exiling the last emperor, Bahadur Shah II, after the 1857 rebellion (Encyclopedia Britannica, n.d.).

Historical Context - Colonialism and British Rule

Colonialism is the process of one country taking control of another and imposing its political, economic and cultural systems upon it. The Portuguese explorer, Vasco de Gama, arrived in India in May 1498. The Portuguese captured ports and took control of Goa in 1510, the capital city of the Portuguese colony in India. Besides exploiting western India financially and commercially by charging ships money to enter and trade, the Goa Inquisition targeted Hindus, Muslims, Jews, and anyone who was not following the beliefs of the Roman Catholic Church. There were many instances of forced conversions and destruction of places of worship. The Goa Inquisition was abolished and came to an end in 1812 (National Council of Educational Research and Training, 2025).

The Dutch established the Dutch East India Company, which was based mainly in the Malabar region of Kerala. After being defeated in 1741 by the Travancore Kingdom in Kerala, the Dutch presence in India significantly decreased.

The French came to India and established themselves at Surat in 1668 and Pondicherry (Puducherry) in 1674. They established the East India Company and aimed to establish a French empire. During the Carnatic Wars, the French lost to the British, reducing their territory.

British Colonialism

The English East India Company was a trading company given a royal charter by Queen Elizabeth I, which gave it the privilege of assembling a private army. They started by establishing themselves around the coast, concealing their true intentions. They slowly inserted themselves into the political landscape by supporting rival rulers and preying on community divisions. The Battle of Plassey (1757) is a clear example, where tensions existed between the Nawab of Bengal and the East India Company. They started gaining more territory and introduced the Doctrine of Lapse, which stated that the British would take control over any princely state that did not have a male heir if the current ruler died. A princely state in this scenario has an Indian ruler, but is given British protection. At the time of independence, there were more than 500 princely states. The seizure of multiple states under the Doctrine of Lapse expanded British control and angered locals. It was a contributing factor to the 1857 rebellion. The British also controlled states indirectly through a subsidiary alliance, installing British residents in Indian royal courts to protect them. The ruler of Hyderabad was the first to enter into such an agreement in 1798, and other states followed; however, once joined, states could not leave or they would face British military action.

As a result of high taxes on Bengal farmers from the East India Company, along with years of crop failure, 10 million people perished in the Great Bengal famine in 1770. Still, the English government demanded taxes, causing farmers to sell everything from their assets to their own children. The Great Bengal famine was one of many under British India, with the death toll from famines alone estimated to be between 50 and 100 million. The colonial era drowned rural India in poverty. It still has not recovered. The British reportedly sapped billions of pounds from India, equivalent to $45 trillion USD today, through taxes, building costs and warfare from 1765 to 1938 (National Council of Educational Research and Training, 2025). Britain also controlled most of Indian trade, making it harder for Indians to export their goods through tariffs and restrictions and forcing them to accept British goods. Economic restrictions took India from prosperity to poverty by 1947.

The British also replaced traditional systems with a centralised government, its primary purpose being tax collection, introducing laws and customs that clashed with those that Indians had previously been living under. Traditional schools faded as English became the preferred language in educational institutions, creating tensions between English-educated Indians and those who were not. The new education system was in Britain's interest as they could pay Indians less for the same work. There was no regard for traditional Indian knowledge, so generations of people became disconnected from their culture. Indian tax revenue funded railways, the telegraph network and the luxurious lifestyles of British officials in India. India was enslaved by the money from its own people.

There were multiple instances of rebellion against the British, including the Sannyasi-Fakir rebellion after the famine of 1770, where Hindu and Muslim ascetics attacked British tax collectors. Another is the Kol Uprising (1831-1832) in modern-day Jharkhand, as well as the Santhal Rebellion (1855-1856), both of which resisted British land policies. The Santhal Rebellion ended in villages being burned and the deaths of thousands of Santhals. The Santhals' defiance against the British influenced other communities to resist. The Indigo Revolt (1859-1862) was a reaction to mistreatment and poor payment for work, as everyone but the peasants profited from growing indigo plants. Perhaps the most prominent was the Great Rebellion of 1857 (also known as the Sepoy Mutiny), where the British went door-to-door killing entire households, burning villages and destroying crops. In 1858, the British Crown took direct control over India; its crown jewel was in its hands (National Council of Educational Research and Training, 2025).

The British Raj refers to Britain's direct rule over India from 1858 to 1947. Marked by the Government of India Act 1858, which transferred authority from the East India Company to the British Crown, government control went to the viceroys. Policies that recognised princely states and did not interfere in religious affairs helped cement Britain's power in the subcontinent.

The British, via the Indian subcontinent, invaded and conquered Myanmar (then Burma) after three wars. The Indian National Congress was founded in 1885, sowing the seeds of Indian nationalism alongside the creation of the Muslim League in 1906, eventually leading to the formation of Pakistan in 1947. The British Raj partitioned Bengal in 1905, deeming 85 million people too much for one province, drawing a line that created the Muslim-majority province of East Bengal and Assam (with Dhaka as its capital) and the Hindu-majority province of West Bengal (with Calcutta as its capital). The British aimed to divide Hindus and Muslims and to quell the growing nationalist sentiment. The Partition of Bengal led to protests and boycotts, resulting in its reunification in 1911.

After World War II, a changing global landscape, internal conflicts and demands, a weak British economy and army, and an insatiable hunger for nationalism, Britain passed the Indian Independence Act in July 1947 (Encyclopedia Britannica, n.d.). How did history unravel to reach this point? 

Key Figures and Decisions

The Indian National Congress

The Indian National Congress (INC) was founded on December 28, 1855, and focused initially on political reforms within the country. It later evolved into the main driver for India's independence struggle. The Non-Cooperation Movement in 1920 encouraged Indians to exit the British government and its institutions with the goal of Swaraj (self-governance). Still, it was suspended by Gandhi in 1922 after the Chauri Chaura incident that claimed the lives of 22 police officers. On January 26, 1930, the INC declared a demand for complete independence (Purna Swaraj) under the leadership of Jawaharlal Nehru. The Dandi March – or Salt March – was an act of non-violent protest against the British salt taxes, which captured massive public support in March 1930 but resulted in the imprisonment of 60,000 people. On July 14, 1942, the INC passed a resolution called 'Quit India', which rallied for an end to British colonial rule. The response from the British was high-profile arrests and suppressing the leadership of the INC (Encyclopedia Britannica, n.d.).

All India Muslim League

The All India Muslim League was founded on December 30, 1906, in Dhaka (Bangladesh's current capital city) to represent the political interests of Muslims in British India. The need for such a group grew out of the perception that the INC was acting in the interests of Hindus and the declining Muslim influence in India due to the fall of the Mughals. Furthermore, the Partition of Bengal sparked tensions between Hindus and Muslims. Initially, the group aimed to be loyal to the British, but from 1913, they began to challenge colonial rule. The shift in ideology was adopted when Muhammad Ali Jinnah joined the party. They advocated for separate electorates for Muslims, established in the Morley-Minto reforms in 1909. The Lucknow Pact in 1916 was a milestone collaboration between the INC and the All-India Muslim League, as the Congress agreed to the demands of the League for separate electorates. On March 23, 1940, the All-India Muslim League held a session in Lahore, calling for independent states in the Muslim-majority areas of northwest and east India, birthing the vision that would become Pakistan. They continued to push for Pakistan throughout the 1940s with Direct Action Day (August 16, 1946), where the League called for a strike and protest, which resulted in violence between Hindus and Muslims (Vajiram & Ravi, 2025). A year later, their wish would be granted.

Mahatma Gandhi

Gandhi was born in 1869 in Porbandar and strongly advocated non-violence. He believed in Swaraj and became a spokesperson for the Indian National Congress. He was arrested for the Salt March in 1930 and on countless further occasions during the 1930s and 1940s, along with other members of the INC, due to being non-compliant with the British. Gandhi firmly rejected the proposal for the Partition of India and had a vision for a unified India. An India envisioned as a melting pot, not a mosaic. After the Partition, he aimed to end the violence that erupted (Never Such Innocence, n.d.). His opposition to the Partition angered Muslims, but at the same time, Hindus believed he favoured Muslims over them. On January 30, 1948, Gandhi, the man who preached and practised non-violence, was shot 3 times by Nathuram Godse, a man who held negative views on Muslims and believed that Gandhi's actions would harm Hindus. Gandhi's assassination left a mark on India, and more than a million people attended his funeral (Phillips, 2023). The voice that advocated for peace was silenced by violence.

Jawaharlal Nehru

Jawaharlal Nehru was born in Allahabad in 1889 and was the first prime minister of independent India. He joined the Indian National Congress in 1919, and he was imprisoned multiple times during the 1920s and 1930s. Nehru was against the Muslim League's desire to split India based on religious beliefs, but uneagerly agreed to the Partition. He was deemed to be Gandhi's successor after World War II. After the Partition on August 15, 1947, he became the first prime minister and held this position until he died in 1964 (British Broadcasting Corporation, n.d.).

Muhammad Ali Jinnah

Muhammad Ali Jinnah was born on December 25, 1876, in Karachi (present-day Pakistan). He joined the Muslim League in 1913, hoped to maintain a unified India, and would work to protect Muslim interests through legal measures. However, by 1940, his perspective shifted. He believed he could not guarantee rights for Muslim minorities in Hindu-majority India and began to advocate for a distinct Muslim state (Pakistan). From 1940 to 1947, Jinnah was firm on the idea of a Muslim state and would not make any compromises, whether offered by someone British, Hindu, or even fellow Muslims. In his heart, Pakistan needed to exist, because of a worry that Muslims would be barred from advancing politically in a Hindu-majority state (Coulter, 2023). In 1947, his diligence paid off. On August 14, Pakistan was born, with East Pakistan in the Bengal area, together with West Pakistan, making up most of the northwestern Indian subcontinent. Jinnah fought for freedom from the British, then for civil freedom for Muslims in India, and freedoms for the state of Pakistan. He became Pakistan's first Governor-General, but he passed away in Karachi on September 11, 1948. He is known as Qaid-e Azam (Great Leader) and is revered as the founding father of Pakistan (Coulter, 2023). Although he did not live to see his nation flourish, his legacy inspires millions who view him as the architect of their country's freedom today.

Lord Mountbatten

Louis Mountbatten was born on June 25, 1900, and was the great-grandchild of Queen Victoria and the uncle of Prince Philip. In March 1947, Mountbatten became India's last viceroy, supervising the British Empire's withdrawal from India. He gave up on the idea of a united India, and British India was partitioned into India and Pakistan. This resulted in even more violence, especially in Punjab, which was split between the two countries. Approximately 3.5 million Hindus and Sikhs fled from Pakistan, and around 5 million Muslims headed towards Pakistan (British Broadcasting Corporation, n.d.).

The Radcliffe Line

Fate was sealed with the flick of a pen. In 1947, Sir Cyril Radcliffe, a British lawyer who had not set foot in India, was tasked with drawing the borders between India and Pakistan. He was given 5 weeks. The border he drew – the Radcliffe Line – was announced on August 17, 1947, days after India and Pakistan gained independence. The line was based upon the religious demographics of certain areas and other ambiguous factors, yet they triggered one of the largest migrations in history. There were more than 500 princely states at the time, and each was given a choice to join India, Pakistan, or remain independent. One of these states is still plagued with problems due to this hasty decision: Kashmir (Chughtai & Haddad, 2022).

Impact of Partition

The Partition triggered one of the largest migrations in history. Millions moved across borders, leaving their homes behind. The Partition was marked by violence within communities, with extreme violence in Punjab and Bengal due to different religious communities living side by side (Scienta Educare, 2025). Both nations struggled to rebuild their economies in the aftermath. Not to mention, the psychological scars on the people who lived and experienced the Partition, through the effects of the violence, loss of family, and forced migration. Important cultural and religious structures were left behind or destroyed. The Partition worsened the divide between Hindus and Muslims within and between the countries.

The Kashmir Quandary

Jammu and Kashmir was a princely state with a Muslim-majority population, ruled by a Hindu Maharaja (Hari Singh). The Maharaja (king) originally wanted to remain independent, but when Pakistan invaded the region, he wanted to join India in return for military backing. This led to the first war between India and Pakistan (1947-1948). The Kashmir dispute led to multiple wars and fights at the border. The increasing religious and nationalist sentiments, and the adoption of nuclear weapons by both countries, have not helped the situation (Scienta Educare, 2025).

Decoding Religions

It was never the religions that were inherently evil, but the actions of corrupted people. This is  necessary to acknowledge. In Islam, it is stated in the Quran (5:32), "Because of that, We decreed upon the Children of Israel that whoever kills a soul unless for a soul or for corruption in the land—it is as if he had slain mankind entirely; and whoever saves one—it is as if he had saved mankind entirely." Although this verse is originally addressed to the children of Israel (sons of the abrahamic prophet Jacob), it expresses a universal principle for everyone in the religion to follow. Killing is explicitly disallowed unless the person has engaged in corruption or killed someone else. In Hinduism, from the Mahabharata (Anushasana Parva - Book 13 - Chapter 117), "Non-violence is the highest virtue; likewise, violence in the service of dharma is also justified." Again, indiscriminate killing is not allowed unless for a greater moral reason. Even in Sikhism, in the Zafarnama, "The true soldier is the one who stands for truth and protects the oppressed." 

There is a common theme, cementing the fact that none of these religions allow or justify the killing and targeting of innocents. They place a great deal of importance on acting with righteousness. So why did the violence happen? Under widespread psychological fragility and panic, people justified their violent actions in their heads. Human corruption drove the violence, not the moral or ethical teachings of the religions themselves. 

Contemporary Relevance

The Partition matters today not only because of how historically significant it was or because of the large South Asian diaspora, but also because it serves as a cautionary tale. It is a clear example of how inherently fair and just religions can be weaponised and be intertwined with political ideology – often nationalism. It shows the uncomfortable situations that minorities experience and how rushed decisions can result in decades of destruction and disorder. What is not discussed as much is that the Partition was also an inherently psychological crisis.

Hindus, Sikhs, and Muslims all feared that they would be dominated or wiped out by the other, and the rumours that would have spread would have exacerbated panic and paranoia. People would have fled their homes or would have attacked their neighbours out of a fear their neighbours would attack them first. During the Partition, religion was the strongest marker of someone's identity and once these groups were perceived as fundamentally different, prejudices, stereotypes, and hostility escalated. Each side framed itself as superior and portrayed the other as uncivilised. Dehumanising people makes it easier to commit acts of violence towards them. Ordinary people would join mobs because they felt safer in groups, and would rely on the crowd's behaviour above their own, even if it meant committing heinous crimes (the mob violence during the Partition escalated quickly). 

Political and religious leaders may also have exaggerated threats to get their communities behaving in a way they feel is appropriate, fueling anger and division, creating a cycle of fear, anger and revenge. Perpetrators of violence would have justified their actions by claiming that the same would have been done to them if they had not acted first. Fear, insecurity, herd mentality, propaganda, the ‘us vs them’ argument and dehumanisation turned ordinary citizens into violent evildoers. There are still tensions between these religious communities in South Asia, with people using things that have happened in the past to justify their brutal actions in the present. But it begs the question: Does it make sense for someone to pay for the sins of their forefathers?

How do we prevent something like this from happening again? At the individual level, we can promote group understanding by building friendships, engaging in dialogue across communities, being critical of hate speech and propaganda, and recognising when leaders try to divide communities and dismissing hate speech. Governments can engage in inclusive governance, addressing minority fears, teaching shared history, regulating hate speech and propaganda, and promoting education, emphasising empathy and unity.

Conclusion

Nations were born and lives were lost. Millions killed and scattered, and wounds so deep that the land itself will never forget. The Partition is a reminder that freedom and identity should never come at the expense of our shared humanity. We should aim for a future where unity triumphs over division and where identity is a cause for celebration. United we stand, divided we fall. 

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